What is cultural heritage, why should it be protected and what does the law say? Here, we have listed and explained some terms and concepts and answered questions related to endangered cultural heritage. We also provide suggestions on how to find out more.
What is cultural heritage?
Answer: Cultural heritage is a term that is difficult to define. It could be said that it is made up of different expressions of human activity. We most often think of tangible cultural heritage, such as buildings, antiquities and artefacts, but there is also an intangible cultural heritage that consists, for example, of customs, traditions, stories and music. Cultural heritage is not static. Rather, it changes over time. There is no set time limit for when something begins to be considered cultural heritage. Already in our own lifetime, we all participate in the creation of the cultural heritage of both today and tomorrow.
What is world heritage?
Answer: Some parts of cultural heritage are considered to be so important that they are classified as world heritage. A world heritage is a cultural or natural heritage that is so valuable that it is a concern for all of humanity to preserve for future generations. It can be a place, environment, or object that uniquely testifies to the history of the Earth and humanity. Once the place, environment or object is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, it shall be guaranteed protection and care for all time. Since the world heritage sites are so important, they are also in particular danger in conflicts. Read more about world heritage sites on the UNESCO website: UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
What is meant by cultural artefacts or cultural property?
Answer: Cultural artefacts or cultural property is a collective term for things that have been made and/or used by people. It can be anything from stone-age axes, medieval pot shards, illustrated manuscripts, sculptures of divinity, or naturally shaped rocks that were of great ceremonial significance to a group of people. Many countries around the world have legislation stating that if a cultural artefact is older than, for example, 100 years, it shall be protected. A licence is most often required for archaeological excavations, and a certificate from a national authority to be allowed to export and/or sell cultural artefacts. In Sweden, you should contact the Swedish National Heritage Board if you want such an export licence.
Why should cultural heritage be preserved?
Answer: Cultural heritage is an important part of our identity. It is our shared memory that tells us about the people who came before us and about how our current society emerged. Cultural heritage is often strongly symbolic, which makes it extra vulnerable in the event of war and conflict. At the same time, this very symbolism can be a uniting factor in reconstruction, reconciliation and development after a conflict. Many times, cultural heritage is also an economic resource that provides people with work and income.
In what way is cultural heritage endangered by war and conflict?
Answer: Cultural heritage is endangered in several ways in wars and conflicts. This may involve deliberate or unintentional destruction or different forms of theft and looting.
Wars and conflicts often lead to thefts and looting of museum objects, art and antiquities, but looting and illicit trafficking takes place even in times of peace and stability. The objects are smuggled out of the country and sold in an international market. An object can travel a long and difficult road, pass through many intermediaries and be provided with false documents that can make it very difficult to prove that an object is stolen. The buyers often buy the objects in good faith.
During conflicts, illegal excavations can occur where archaeological sites are just excavated in the pursuit of artefacts. This not only causes the artefacts themselves to disappear, but also future opportunities to extract knowledge about the past.
Looting and forgery will only exist as long as there is a market for the objects. If demand were to disappear, this destruction of cultural heritage would also end.
The profitable market for antiquities also means that the industry that produces counterfeits can flourish. Well-made copies of ancient findings are mixed with originals and can be very difficult to discover.
Are there laws concerning cultural heritage?
Answer: Most countries have laws that protect their own cultural heritage. Some countries have laws that were established back in the 19th century or early in the 20th century. The laws define what constitutes a protected cultural artefact, who has the right to conduct archaeological investigations, who owns cultural artefacts that have not yet been found, who has the right to issue export licences – to name a few aspects covered by the legislation. UNESCO has gathered many of these laws into a database (link): UNESCO Database of National Cultural Heritage Laws | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Has Sweden signed any international treaties that concern cultural heritage?
Answer: There are several international conventions that concern the protection of cultural heritage. Sweden has ratified the following:
There are also several resolutions, declarations and other instruments regarding cultural artefacts that Sweden has signed and/or adopted:
What does the law say about importing objects from conflict areas?
Answer: Since 2019, there has been the Regulation (EU) 2019/880 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the introduction and the import of cultural goods from countries outside the EU. Besides this, there is no legislation in Sweden that regulates the import of cultural artefacts and antiquities from other countries. However, the UN has developed conventions to protect cultural heritage. UNESCO, which is the UN body for cooperation in education, culture, science and communication, has prepared four conventions in the cultural heritage area that Sweden has signed.
Sweden also acceded to the UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects from 1995.
Furthermore, UN Security Council Resolution 2199 prohibits trade in cultural property from Syria and Iraq. In this area, there is also EU legislation with the same purpose. In accordance with the UN Security Council Resolution, the Government of Sweden has issued sanctions that prohibit all trade in cultural property from Syria and Iraq. The sanctions apply to objects that left Iraq after 6 August 1990 or left Syria after 9 May 2011. Violating these sanctions may entail a prison sentence.
Why should cultural heritage be protected while people are dying or being forced to flee?
Answer: It may seem cynical to talk about the protection of cultural heritage in conflicts where people are being wounded and killed, and of course, the protection of people and human life always comes first. However, it must be remembered that cultural heritage is a very important part of our identity. Cultural heritage is our shared memory that tells us about the people who came before us and about how today’s society emerged. Cultural heritage is often strongly symbolic, which makes it extra vulnerable in the event of war and conflict. At the same time, this very symbolism can be a uniting factor in reconstruction, reconciliation and development after a conflict.
Cultural heritage is often part of a tourism industry, and thereby also serves as an economic resource that gives people work and income.
Sometimes, the theft of cultural heritage objects is a source of income for one or more combatants. In Syria and Iraq, systematic looting of museums and excavation sites has been used as a source of income by ISIS, which is why the UN Security Council prohibited trading in art and antiquities from these countries.
Is it not better for artefacts and antiquities to be sent here than remaining in conflict areas where they risk being destroyed?
Answer: Since all research shows that it is the market in the Western world that serves as the engine for looting and illegal excavations in, for example, Syria and Iraq (as well as many other places), every object that ends up in this market will contribute to continued crime in the countries of origin. Thefts from museums and private individuals, illegal excavations and the production of counterfeits will also continue.
How big is the problem in Sweden?
Answer: From an international perspective, Sweden is a small market. By increasing our knowledge about the problems, we can ensure that it remains that way.
What is the problem with illegal excavations? The objects will still come up sooner or later, won’t they?
Answer: An archaeological excavation is based on certain methods and procedures. In order to be able to interpret an archaeological object, it is crucial to know where it was found and what other objects it was found with. It is the combination of objects and context that give us knowledge about the people who lived before us. If this kind of information is not documented, an object is at risk of being interpreted incorrectly or becoming completely incomprehensible. If objects were excavated without proper documentation, the context can never be recreated and the knowledge is lost forever.
What are the National Museums of World Culture?
Answer: The National Museums of World Culture were founded in 1999 with the mission of exhibiting the cultures of the world and bringing them to life, especially cultures originating outside Sweden. The authority shall document and highlight the expressions and conditions of different cultures, as well as cultural interactions and cultural variation, historically and in society today, nationally and internationally.
The authority consists of four museums: the Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities, the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities and the Museum of Ethnography in Stockholm and the Museum of World Culture in Gothenburg.
Together, we manage collections with more than 450,000 objects, around 1 million pictures, over 500 running metres of archive documents, 300 films and four libraries, whose total portfolio consists of approximately 160,000 books and journals.
Does the National Museums of World Culture have stolen and looted objects in their collection?
Answer: The collection of the National Museums of World Culture originated in the 17th century when acquiring collections began to become a popular occupation. Since then, the collection has grown with every year. Today, the authority conducts active provenance research, i.e., tracing the objects’ history backwards in time (where it comes from, who found it, who owned it and how it came to Sweden). One reason that we do so is to investigate if we have made mistakes in acquiring something for our collection. Objects have been discovered that have become part of the collection in an improper manner. The National Museums of World Culture have two goals with their provenance research. One is that no new acquisitions for the collection should be part of illicit trafficking, looting and destruction. The other is to return objects to their rightful owner, if there is one; this is also known as repatriation or restitution. Here you can read the authority’s policy on repatriation and restitution (PDF).
How did the collection of the National Museums of World Culture come about?
Answer: Objects that students of Carl Linnaeus brought home from their travels around the world can be found among the oldest collections. Explorers, missionaries, archaeologists, ethnologists, and others have since brought objects back with them to Sweden. There are also gifts from royalty and diplomats, and objects collected by the authority’s own staff. A considerable number of objects were gifts from private individuals. The majority of our collection was acquired through legal and ethical means, but there are objects that had been stolen, looted, and illegally exported from their countries of origin.
Are there any objects you would like to know more about?
Answer: Are there any objects you would like to know more about? Are you wondering about the value of something you own? Unfortunately, our staff does not have the possibility of helping identify cultural artefacts owned by private individuals. Nor do we make financial appraisals of objects. Why not? It goes against the international ethical rules that we as a professional museum authority follow. Feel free to read more about it here: International Council of Museums (link).
Even if we cannot help you directly, you can try to learn more about an object yourself with the help of our database or through a visit to one of our libraries.
Do you have an object you want to submit for repatriation?
Answer: We are contacted by private individuals who realise that they have cultural artefacts in their possession that they do not want to keep. The National Museums of World Culture are currently very restrictive in acquiring cultural artefacts in their collection if there is no documentation, such as an export licence or knowledge of the object’s origin, producer or users. Instead, we recommend that you contact the relevant embassy and ask if they would accept the object to return it to their home country. Embassies are often very grateful for every possibility of regaining a lost cultural heritage.
If you do not know where the object comes from, or which culture it belongs to, there is currently no good solution for what should be done with it. Our suggestion is to keep it in the family and to let the object be handed down as inheritance.
Who should I contact if I suspect that an object is illegally imported?
Answer: Contact the police. They have a special group that works with these issues.
There are databases for stolen objects:
You can also contact the International Council of Museums (ICOM) if you want help with the identification of objects suspected of being stolen: illicit-traffic@icom.museum
Where can I learn more about this subject?
Answer: Illicit trafficking of cultural artefacts and the destruction of cultural heritage is a global problem. Here are links and reading suggestions for those who want to know more. If you have suggestions on what should be included here, write to info@varldskulturmuseerna.se with the subject “Endangered Cultural Heritage”.
Unesco Fight Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Property (unesco.org)
ICOMOS Home - International Council on Monuments and Sites (icomos.org)
The Swedish National Heritage Board Kulturarvsbrott | Riksantikvarieämbetet (raa.se)
Changing Hands, Changing Meanings: Researching Cultural Heritage Trafficking in the Nordic Region Changing Hands, Changing Meanings: Researching Cultural Heritage Trafficking in the Nordic Region (wordpress.com)
Culture Crime News News — Culture Crime News
Trafficking Culture Trafficking Culture
Athar Project ATHAR Project
Victoria & Albert Museum, UK V&A · Culture In Crisis (vam.ac.uk)
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property Homepage | ICCROM
Antiquites Coalition The Antiquities Coalition | Pioneers Against Cultural Racketeering
SAFE Our Stories — SAFE (savingantiquities.org)
Blue Shield International Blue Shield International - Protecting cultural heritage (theblueshield.org)
The Central Registry of Information on Looted Cultural Property 1933-1945 Welcome to lootedart.com
Commission for Art Recovery Commission for Art Recovery (commartrecovery.org)
International Research Portal for Records Related to Nazi-Era Cultural Property International Research: Nazi-Era Cultural Property (IRP2 Demo) (ehri-project.eu)
What can I do to protect cultural heritage?
Answer: You can help in many different ways:
Take care of our shared cultural heritage!
